History of Foreign and Security Policy

History of Foreign and Security Policy Defining Foreign and Security Policy from the Cold War to Present Today’s increasingly globalised community has seen more diplomatic and social evolution in the past half-century than the civilized world has seen in recent memory. The advent of multinational trade and military alliances such as the North Atlantic Trade Organization has increasingly intertwined security policies with foreign policies, which in turn entail more than just military alliances. Foreign subsidies by way of fiscal aid grants and weapons contracts warrant the need for nations to adopt solid, transparent foreign and security policies as the traditional global threat of warfare changes. The most notable examples for security and foreign policies as well as the need for a national and supranational governmental monitor are the United States and the European Union. The aforementioned two bodies share between them diplomatic ties to most every member of the international community. The onus of foreign and security policies becomes more apparent through examination of dipl omatically fragile and militarily-temperamental regions such as the Middle East, whose international agreements and regional alliances are the basis for subsequent American and EU policy, without which allies and trade partners would find little benefit from trade and security agreements. Foreign policy amounts to little more than a series of political guidelines and rules of engagement by which any country implementing it best gains at a certain point in time. Foreign policies are known to change radically from one year to the next; the Cold War is perhaps the greatest testament to the temporal nature of international relations and foreign policy. Robert John Myers notes in his US Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century how quickly Western countries changed their approach to the Soviet Union. Prior to 1945 â€Å"during the savage struggle of World War II, the primacy of the wisdom of political realism seemed to have been learned† by the Allies, who interlocked â€Å"inte rest, power, and morality in the councils of the principal Allied power†[1]; the USSR at the time was an indispensable ally against Germany and Japan. Much to the chagrin of their current political detractors, the Soviets were perhaps the most powerful ally America had in the war against the Axis powers, with borders spanning the heart of the Nazi regime and maritime waters bordering the Imperial Japanese. Foreign policy then had nothing to do with the civil liberties, democracy, and freedom of the press so touted today in the same countries that huddled together in opposition to Moscow during the Cold War. Prior to the partition of Germany at the close of the war, it was easily recognizable that â€Å"wartime cooperation to defeat the Axis was clearly important† and Allied foreign policy toward its Soviet contingent was one of camaraderie and mutual interdependence[2]. Once the war ended, however, the close ties between the powers dissipated and politically malignant a ntipathy filled the void. With a barely nascent United Nations absent as policy moderator, the US and the USSR led a series of proxy wars starting with â€Å"the attack by North Korea on South Korea on 25 June 1950,† marking â€Å"the limited cooperation [and mediation] that came to be expected from the UN in the security field†[3]. International mediation, which should have taken place given the alliance that transpired between the US, USSR, and Europe during WWII was all but gone in the years of reconstruction and the escalation of the Cold War. There are two points of speculation given the rise of the Cold War: the first is that the United Nations failed as an international mediator, and the second is that the United Nations was obsolete, serving only to keep other countries out of the periphery of the Soviet-American struggle for dominance. The difference between foreign and security policy during the Cold War was elementary. The American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union was one of mutual trade and sales, the development of which was speculated by many to be a financial insurance policy; if the two superpowers intertwined economically, the idea of armed struggle would be so financially devastating that neither side would be willing to continue along the path to war. American security policy was markedly different given the proxy wars fought in Korea, Vietnam, and the Middle East. Foreign policy essentially existed in the case of the Cold War to ensure that security policy would never be employed. The Cold War was a fascinating case of how foreign policy and security policy could run completely contrarian to each other. Any two given nations can foster amicable foreign policies in their approach to each other independent of a covertly hostile security policy as evidenced by the oft-shifting approach of successive American administrations to the Soviet behemoth. Jimmy Carter, for example, â€Å"forbade grain sales to the Soviet Union following the nation’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979,† while â€Å"Ronald Reagan made the unpopular embargo an issue in the 1980 elections, reversing the policy after his election†[4]. The Reagan policy shift did not predicate a change in security policy, as the administration continued its support of Afghan mujahideen forces through arms sales and finance while continuing its agricultural trade with Moscow. It is now well-known that the UN was inconsequential in international mediation throughout the Cold War. This is not to say that an international or supranational regulatory body is not needed; in the case of the US and USSR, the absent (and perhaps powerless) UN was perceived as such because their collective power was dwarfed by the two superpowers. With no military or financial incentive, the question of the relevance of a supranational regulatory body in foreign and security policy is moot. Even today, American foreign policies often contravene UN resolutions with little or no repercussion due to the immense economic, political, and military might of Washington. While the Cold War ended relatively peacefully without UN intervention, the concept of an international body was not scorned by the US, which partnered with various countries to create the North Atlantic Trade Organization (NATO). It should be noted, however, that the US was an open advocate of NATO for the very reason tha t the UN was not potent enough a body to act on American will or on behalf of American aspirations. International mediation in this sense is needed for the monitoring of foreign and security policy; whether or not mediation will be effective in both sectors is quite another issue. Foreign policy can be monitored, policed, and even dictated by a supranational body as evidenced in the partition of Germany and the formation of the Eastern Bloc post-WWII. Security policy, however, is a point of major contention with any nation faced with the prospect of supranational control. Any nation with major investment (diplomatic or financial) abroad would be reluctant to cede jurisdiction of its own soldiers and sovereignty to an outside body, especially one such as the UN whose member list consists of nations antagonistic to one another. The irony here is that a multi-national group could have foreign and security policy power over a nation whose security policy is antagonistic to one or more members of the same international group. Israel, for example, would embark on an unprecedented leap of faith if it allowed the UN and its Arab members to mediate its security policy, all despite the fact that from the first years of its inception (1948-1967) the Jewish state relied o n the UN to justify its existence to the international community. The multi-faceted Arab-Israeli conflict is just one example of how unchecked world superpowers exerted their influence unchecked by the vigil of an international body. Prior to the fall of the Soviet Union, foreign policy was a much simpler venture as the world found itself functioning under the umbrella of just two superpowers, led by and acting under the auspices of either Washington or Moscow. The fall of Communism left a vacuum in the Middle East, as the now-extinct USSR had no allegiances to the Middle East in which it fought a series of proxy wars and conflicts with the United States. What transpired following the end of Moscow’s reign as a world superpower was the creation of several diplomatically independent states in the Middle East. Where Moscow once supported Syria, Egypt, and Iraq while arming said nations’ leaders, they found themselves increasingly dependent on other sources for trade and international subsidy such as the EU and the United States. The foreign policy then drove the security policy, baited by American and EU sponsorship acting independently of the UN. Today, Egypt, once the sworn enemy of Israel (whose cl osest international ally is Washington), receives America’s second-largest international aid package. This of course is contingent upon the maintenance of a lasting peace as well as other conditions detailed in the Camp David Accords of 1978. The UN and the EU’s parts in the conflict were minimal, as security policies of the two comprised of a minimal militaristic component and a far larger foreign policy component. Pinar Bilgin observes in Regional Security in the Middle East how the fragile Mediterranean â€Å"as an alternative spatial representation began to take shape from the 1970s onward largely in line with the development and changing security conception and practices of the European Union,† a group whose policies toward the region â€Å"have been shaped around three major concerns: energy security (understood as the sustained flow of oil and natural gas at reasonable prices); regional stability (understood as domestic stability especially in countries in geographically North Africa); and the cessation of the Israel/Palestine conflict†[5]. Unlike the US and USSR, whose motives will be examined later, the EU was interested solely in the protection of their economic preservation and the prevention of any armed conflict from spilling into their geographic vicinity. In addition to the Arab-Israeli crisis, EU Member States such as Italy, France, and Spain faced growing resentment in the Maghreb (Arab North Africa) as a corollary of imperial European rule. The EU’s policies were hence different from â€Å"non-EU actors [who] encouraged and supported the search for security within a Euro-Mediterranean framework†; the EU has almost â€Å"single-handedly sought to construct a Euro-Mediterranean Region to meet its own domestic economic, societal, and, to a much lesser extent, military security interests†[6]. The American and Soviet interest in the region was also one of economic, political, and security nature, bu t on a much larger scale. Buzan and Waever note in their Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security how: â€Å"The United States and the Soviet Union were latecomers as major players in Middle Eastern regional security, though the former had long-standing oil interests there. The two superpowers were drawn into a pattern of regional turbulence that was already strongly active. Their interest in the region was heightened by the fact that, like Europe, the Middle East sat on the boundary between the spheres of communism and ‘free’ worlds. Stalin’s aggressive policy after 1945 had pushed Turkey and Iran into the arms of the West. Turkey became a member of NATO, and was thus fixed into the main European front of the Cold War. Until the Islamic Revolution in 1979, Iran fell increasingly under American sway, not only through corporate oil interests, but also as part of the loose alliance arrangements that connected American containment clients in Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. To counter this US success right on its borders, the Soviet Union tried to play in the Arab world b ehind this front line, by establishing political and military links to the radical regimes and movements that sprang up in the Middle East during the 1950s and 1960s (Syria, PLO, Iraq, Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Yemen)†[7] The entire Middle East, ranging from Egypt to Iran, became what Buzan and Waever describe as a â€Å"third front in the Cold War, after Europe and Asia, and its oil resources tied it powerfully into the global economy†[8]. The Camp David Accords were especially important; while Israeli security policies remained virtually unchanged (the Israeli-Egyptian peace is frequently described as â€Å"cool† in comparison to Israeli-Turkish relations), their foreign policies shifted. The two acted under the auspices of the United States, signalling a significant achievement in the Cold War. Though the â€Å"crosscutting complexities of internal alignments in the Middle East† make it â€Å"difficult to trace a clear Cold War pattern of great power intervention,† the small gains and losses in war and political action were of huge consequence. With the 1978 signing of the Camp David Accords, the United States shifted its foreign policy in the Arab world successfully, sp litting allegiances in the Middle East to one drawn along Arab lines to one drawn along foreign policy lines. With Turkey and Iran (at least until Tehran’s 1979 Islamic Revolution) securely in the American camp, the Middle East was thus left only with Syria and Iraq in alliance with the USSR. Conflict in the Middle East was hence capitalized upon by the United States by way of foreign policy, which existed independently of the nations’ security policies. Foreign policies always shift more easily than security policies, as the former serve the interest of a nation’s economy and the latter are charged with the military protection of a nation’s sovereignty, diplomatic or otherwise. As evidenced by the Cold War, American policies in Iraq alone have shifted dramatically. Prior to 1979, for example, American foreign and security policies were in place to secure its interests (Saudi Arabia and Israel) from Baghdad. From 1979 to 1991, American foreign policies toward Iraq remained the same, but its security policies shifted to accommodate Iraqi military suppression of post-revolutionary Iran. From 1991 to 2003, both foreign and security policies shifted to those of aggression and financial seclusion. It should be noted that until 1991, these foreign policy shifts were executed at the whim of three American presidents. Iran followed the same path, with pre-1979 Tehran under Reza Shah Pahlavi serving as a vital blockage to Soviet expansionism. Following the Islamic Revolution of 1979, security policy was hostile toward and sought to exclude Tehran by funding Saddam Hussein. Foreign policy changed during the Contra Scandal, wherein American military leaders sold Tehran various munitions and weapons in direct subterfuge of Washington’s official military support of Baghdad; weapons were sold to a lesser evil (Iran) in order to fund covert operations in support of Nicaraguan right-wing guerrillas. Managua’s leftist-government was thought to be the latest expansion of Soviet influence and was hence a closer threat in physical proximity than the rise of the radical Islamic government of Tehran which was equally opposed to the Soviets at the time. All this transpired, again, without minimal monitoring by an international body. The greatest irony of the aforementioned events, however, is the perception of their respective successes and failures. America succeeded without international intervention in the pacification and dismantlement of the Soviet Union; however, today’s chaotic Middle East was a corollary, including the 9/11 attacks that changed forever the security and foreign policies of the United States. The current wars waged by America and what allies remain are again largely conducted without the support or monitoring by the UN or any other international body, and it remains to be seen how the future will unfold. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bilgin, Pinar. (2005) Regional Security in the Middle East: A Critical Perspective.London: Taylor Francis Routledge. Buzan, Barry and Ole Waever. (2003) Regions and Powers: The Structure ofInternational Security. Cambridge: Cambridge U P. Myers, Robert John. (1999) US Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century: TheRelevance of Realism. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State U P. Wilson, Ernest J. (2004) Diversity and US Foreign Policy: A Reader. New York:Taylor Francis Routledge. 1 Footnotes [1] Myers 1999, p. 98 [2] Ibid [3] Myers 1999, p. 98 [4] Wilson 2004, p. 127 [5] Bilgin 2005, p. 140 [6] Bilgin 2005, p. 140 [7] Buzan and Waever 2003, p. 198 [8] Buzan and Waever 2003, p. 197

Behaviorism-reinforcement

It is difficult if not possible to measure what’s going on in a student’s mind at a specific moment. The students appeared to be paying attention were actually thinking non-academic issues, is not interested, is not motivated, is preoccupied with himself, among many other reason for non participation at school. Reinforcement rooted in the classic work of James Watson and B. F. Skinner. My discussion will include techniques, for increasing, decreasing, and maintaining behavior. There are many things to consider in the application of reinforcement so as to elicit behavior or the desired behavior.To give into consideration is that, reinforcement is more effective when it is immediate. If a response of a student is no longer reinforced, as in ignoring a given answer of a student every time a teacher throws a question or unintentionally took it for granted, the learner if again called his attention to give his answer will eventually given up the response. Another is, desired action are encouraged by a reinforcement specifically social reinforcement, which typically include attention can be verbal or nonverbal. For example, the expression on your face can carry an unmistakable message to a student.Usually, however, social reinforcers are verbal either accompanying some other form of reinforcement (â€Å"John, you can act as class monitor because of the way you behave in gym†) or taking the forms of words or phrase that signal your pleasure about the specific behavior. Social reinforcers expression, contact, proximity, privileges, and words. Giving positive remarks as the reinforcement every time the student performed better, finished a task or cooperate in the school activities are helpful in strengthening the students behavior or the possibilities of the repetition of the same positive behavior.A very shy child may find it difficult to join into classroom activities, specially if the school experience is new to her. The teacher’s role is to involve the child in the classroom activities. The child’s behavior should only be recognized when she is at the activity, though not necessarily participating. For example, when the child sits with the group at circle time, sits at a table where manipulative games or arts projects are provided.An activity within easy reach, when she is within easy reach of an activity, reinforce her, by praising and recognizing her behavior. Provide a reinforcement for every involvement in classroom activities as you notice it. A good reinforcement starts out with continuous reinforcement at the beginning stage of learning. Tangible reinforcers such as cookies and badges for young students or notes to parents or certificates for older students are just few examples which are necessary in the appliance of reinforcement so as to achieved desired outcome.In giving reinforcement, as progress in the skill or behavior develops, less emphasis should be placed on tangible reinforcers, such as foo d and tokens, while more emphasis should be given to social reinforcers, such as praise and attention. Reinforcement is given only after the learner gains sufficient skill at a task, be it participating in group work or writing, that later be strengthened or reinforced that later becomes automatic and habitual. Constant reinforcement means reinforcing the behavior of the student every time he participates.Applying a continuous reinforcement produces best results especially in new learning or conditioning situations. In education, we invoke behaviorism by awarding grades for various levels of performance that the more a student manifests interest in school/ classroom the more the behavior is reinforced so as to expect the same responses or behavior. If you wish to use positive reinforcers, and we all do, deliberately or otherwise, then you must be aware of how you use them. The following should put into consideration first; consider the age, interest, and needs of the students.Pieces of candy are not too motivating for adolescents, but they must be great for first-graders; know precisely the behavior you wish to strengthen and make your reinforcers sufficiently desirable; list potential reinforcers that you think would be desirable; vary your reinforcers and keep record of the effectiveness of various reinforcers on individual students. Positive reinforcement is a powerful principle and can be applied to great advantage in the classroom. All of us who teach, from the preschool to the doctoral level, use positive reinforcement.We must avoid, however, making students too dependent on the reinforcement we provide, particularly if we have initiated structured programs for students. We want them to work for those reinforcers that are natural to them. Punishment is a stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. It can be use to reduced inappropriate behavior but should be done sparingly as even psychologists advice it’s application in moderation. For instance, giving deductions or minuses on the accumulated grade in assignment every time a student misbehave e.g. shouting while the class in going on, decreases the likelihood of the behavior to be repeated. But when a student is not rewarded for appropriate or adaptive behavior, inappropriate or maladaptive behavior may become increasingly dominant, then punishment sinks in to eliminate such undesirable behavior. Sometimes, however, when the goal is to reduce or eliminate misbehavior, teachers consider using punishment (aversive procedures). A word of warning. Don’t fall into the trap of relying punishment.It’s easy; it frequently works for a short time (although not as well with the secondary school students); and gives you a feeling of having established control. Punishment can destroy rapport with the students if excessively used, it produces a ripple effect that touches all students and affects one’s teaching and it may have side effects of which a teacher is unaware. In general, reinforcing alternative behavior is a far better method than punishment. Sources: Elliot et al. ,(2004). Educational psychology 3rd ed. USA: McGrawHill. Essa,V. (1999). A practical guide to solving preschool behavior problems. New York:Delm

Essay on Lord of the Flies-Piggy - 1247 Words

â€Å"Sucks To Your Ass-mar!† The conch, glasses, and brains are all symbols in Lord of the Flies by William Golding. In this novel, a group of school kids crash into a deserted island and fight wilderness, fear, and themselves to survive. Piggy, being one of the most vital characters in their survival, is often disrespected and overlooked. This is persistent throughout the novel, and can be attributed to his weight and nerdy appearance. Generally, Piggy means well, and tries to help the boy’s survival on the island. Piggy, an extremely complex and intelligent character, contributes to the boy’s survival by using logic and brains. Piggy, along with being the brains of the island, is also a very complex and misunderstood boy. â€Å"Piggy is a†¦show more content†¦Without Piggy’s horrible eye sight, and him needing to wear glasses, the boys would never have been able to start a fire, a fire that ultimately led to their rescue. This is very ironic considering Piggy was killed before he would ever see rescue†¦ a rescue that without him would never have happened. Golding did this to reinforce the importance of Piggy in the novel. It showed that no matter how useless he may have seemed, he still was the one that helped the most, in the long run. He was the most important boy to be on that island. He, in reality, saved Jack, an abusive boy who harassed him ever since they crashed, and Roger, the boy who threw stones, and the boy who murdered the innocent Piggy. â€Å"Though Piggy reaches his greatest stature at the moment of his death, it is also the moment of his greatest blindness, rendered for us at a level far deeper than his lost spectacles†. (Kinead-Weekes. Mark. 43). Piggy was completely blindsided from Rogers’s boulder. This moment in the novel makes readers realize the tragedy of Piggy’s death. The shattering of the glasses represents his knowledge and insight turning to dust, all in front of th e very people he saves, from the cage that is the island. The conch was also with him at the moment of his death. This is significant because it symbolizes the shattering of all that Piggy believed in. He truly believed the conch would save him from anything on the island, and in the end it simply did notShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Character Piggy in Lord of the Flies1368 Words   |  6 PagesPiggy saw the smile and misinterpreted it as friendliness. There had grown up tacitly among the biguns the opinion that Piggy was an outsider, not only by accent, which did not matter, but by fat, and ass-mar, and specs, and a certain disinclination for manual labour. (Golding 68) The character Piggy in William Goldings novel Lord of the Flies serves as the intellectual balance to the emotional leaders of a group of shipwrecked British boys. Ironically, their new society values physical qualitiesRead More lord of the flies piggy analysis Essay562 Words   |  3 Pages Piggy Character Analysis nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Piggy in the beginning of the book was using his common sense, he was intelligent, he knew what was right from wrong, and he could condone things that made him angry easily. In the beginning of the book, (pg. ) Ralph told everyone his name was Piggy even though Piggy specifically told Ralph that he didnt like to be called that name Piggy later condoned Ralphs action with great ease. Piggys actions and behavior depended on his glasses.Read MorePiggy Character Analysis - Lord of the Flies Essay985 Words   |  4 Pagesare the weak, unpopular, failure types. In the book â€Å"Lord of the Flies† by William Golding the character that stood out to me most was Piggy. He was the boy whose real name was never mentioned, but his real name wouldn’t be as symbolic as the nickname he had throughout the book. Throughout the earlier chapters I pictured Piggy as the run of the mill loser that wasn’t cool enough to share snacks with in school even if he had the tastiest ones. Piggy is a very obedient character that always followed hisRead MoreLord Of The Flies Symbolism Essay1080 Words   |  5 PagesLord of the Flies Essay â€Å"Maybe there is a beast†¦ maybe its only us.†(Golding [Page 50]) The Lord of the Flies, by William Golding, is a novel that goes much deeper than a group of 12 year old boys stranded on an island. Throughout the book Golding portrays symbols and constant themes which show how he feels about the human race; that there is an inner beast inside everyone and no matter who you are, it will eventually get exposed. Golding also shows symbols throughout the book which represent theRead MoreThe Lord Of The Flies By William Golding1065 Words   |  5 PagesThe Lord of the Flies Essay The Lord of the Flies written by William Golding and published on September 17, 1954 is a story told about a group of stranded boys and their fight for survival against the wilderness and themselves. In this story many signs of symbolism are used by Golding to point out certain aspects of society that Golding thought strongly of. This story on first read may just seem to be a survival- esque piece of literature but, on a deeper look one can find Golding’s true motiveRead MoreLord of The Flies Essay1673 Words   |  7 PagesLord of the Flies was published in 1954 by William Golding. Today Lord of the Flies is a well known literary criticism. Many schools require their students to read Lord of the Flies because of the literary criticisms in the book. In this paper three themes or literary criticisms are talked about: good vs. evil, symbolism of characters, and maturity of characters. Another topic in Goldings Lord of the Flies is the battle of good vs. evil. Everything seems to start out just fine on the island; theRead MoreLord Of The Flies Symbolism Analysis733 Words   |  3 Pages Lord of the Flies Lord of the Flies has symbols throughout the story, each character brings a different point of view. Piggy, Ralph, and Jack take a leading role with all the boys, although they vote Ralph in charge both of the other boys take a leadership position. Goulding uses the boys to show the faults of mankind and the roots of all evil. Four symbols Goulding used in the novel were: Piggy’s glasses, the Conch Shell, The Beast, and Simon’s hiding place. Therefore, the symbols show the trueRead MoreLord of the Flies: World War IIs Impact Essay1064 Words   |  5 PagesLord of the Flies: World War II’s Impact Lord of the Flies by William Golding was influenced strongly by his experiences as a naval officer during World War II. Golding’s wartime service gave him a darker and more realistic look on life, and contributed to the novel’s imagery. As Golding described, World War II woke him up from his falsified beliefs about human nature by showing him the true human condition (â€Å"Lord of the Flies,† Novels 175). Lord of the Flies, as Golding explained, is â€Å"an attemptRead MoreSimilarities and Differences Between Romeo and Juliet and Lord of the Flies1676 Words   |  7 PagesJack goes from hesitating to kill a pig to being able to viciously kill them †¢ Jack rejects Ralph’s authority and does not respect him †¢ Ralph talks to Piggy and Simon and tells them of their need for adults †¢ One of the â€Å"littuns†, Phil, die in a big fire †¢ Fighting and Arguing gets worse between Ralph and Jack who has form a â€Å"gang† of hunters †¢ Piggy is killed – Stone rolling and knocking him off a cliff †¢ Simon is killed – when he is mistaken for the â€Å"beast† †¢ Ralph was about to be hunted and killedRead MoreEssay On The Conch Shell In Lord Of The Flies946 Words   |  4 PagesSymbolism Essay Some actions made my individuals not only has an effect on the people around them, but the objects close by as well. This important object or sign, can all be based upon the people using it, and also be in relation to its environment and surroundings. In the novel, The Lord of the Flies, the author, William Golding uses a conch shell to represent different meanings throughout his novel. The message in each of the different meanings of the conch, show how a group of young, British

Relevant Audit Procedures and Evidences in Verifying the Transaction Accounting in Auto World Free Essay Example, 2000 words

There are, however, two conditions Auto World must meet before accounting for Pit Stop as a separate component and these are the conditions on whether Pit Stop shall be reported as a discontinued operations (SFAS No. 144, Par. 42) or not. These two conditions, according to Par. 42 of SFAS No. 144, are that Pit Stop s operations and cash flows will be significantly eliminated after the sale and that Auto World will have no significant influence on Pit Stop s future operations. The second condition was already met based on the declaration of Auto World that the royalty agreement does not give Auto World significant influence over the operations of Pit Stop. As to the first condition on the elimination of operations and cash flows, we use here as a basis the contents of EITF Issue No. 3 13. According to EITF Issue No. 3 13, if the cash flows will be considered direct and significant to the total operations of Auto World as per its definition, the sold operations will not be consider ed a discontinued one. In Auto World s case, the royalty fees that it will receive after the disposition of Pit Stop are not direct cash flows as these are not the same as those generated by Pit Stop prior to its disposal. We will write a custom essay sample on Relevant Audit Procedures and Evidences in Verifying the Transaction Accounting in Auto World or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page This can be done through the following: (1) inquire from management the business purpose of Pit Stop, how Pit Stop relates to the rest of the operations of Auto World and how management analyzes the operations and financial results of Pit Stop.

Marketing Positioning - 1012 Words

What is positioning? How has the organisation that you have selected positioned their product? As we all know that, there are three steps in target marketing which are market segmentation, market targeting and market positioning. According to Kotler (2010), the definition of product position is â€Å"the way the product is defined by consumer on important attributes – the place the product occupies in consumers’ minds relative to competing product† (P280). Furthermore, in principle, a brand must have something special in order to be remembered by the target market. As a consequence, a clear position in the prospect’s mind should be one of the most important goals in marketing strategies because it will make their products have the greatest†¦show more content†¦This is their services differentiation. Secondly, CLINIQUE also have image differentiation. CLINIQUE male skin products have a special dark package and under the â€Å"CLINIQUE†, there are a sentence â€Å"skin suppies for men†, this is particularly from other brand. As we all know that, CLINIQUE has a high standard quality male skin care product whereas the prices of them are not expensive so CLINIQUE is very affordable. To sum up, marketers always use competitive advantages to enhance their product performance. More specifically, CLINIQUE has its own competitive advantage which is high quality, golden standard personalized services and special brand image. Positioning outcome is the final steps of market positioning. Positioning is the way that the consumer understands about the brand instead of what the seller wants to be remembered by the target market (Tudor et. al, 2012). The brand must deliver some specific benefits and specific meaning of their product to the target market. For CLINIQUE male skin care product, they are concentrated on some product founded on their dermatological heritage and it is crucial in the world, this is one of the specific elements of the product. Furthermore, there is a special three-steps-skin care process for male that they can make the choice more efficiency by following these steps. This is the other specific benefit that CLINIQUE have for male.Show MoreRelatedMarketing Positioning1419 Words   |  6 Pagesstrange word, â€Å"positioning.† Its origins are shrouded in the fog of history. The popular marketing writers, Jack Trout and Al Ries, started talking about position or positioning in 1972 or thereabouts, and took credit later for having invented positioning. However, I believe that positioning was an emerging concept and a term, in at least limited use, within the marketing and advertising community at the time that Trout and Ries first wrote about it. Certainly, the basic concepts of positioning were notRead MoreMarketing Positioning1254 Words   |  6 PagesNon Urban, income is medium to high | Sociable, Friendly, Gregarious | Average | Economical Snackers | U.S.A | Larger Families, Better educated, income is low to medium | Self assured, price oriented | Average | Market Targeting In target marketing the seller distinguishes the major market segments, targets one or more of these segments, and develops products and services tailored to each selected segment (Wright amp; Esslemont, 1994). Terra Chips’ target market is â€Å"Nutritional Snackers†Read MoreMarketing Communication (Brand positioning).1888 Words   |  8 PagesBrand positioning is an attempt to create and maintain a unique representation of the brand in customers mind, a representation that is expected to stimulate choice of that brand (Rossiter, 2005, p.42). Positioning, in fact, refers to how customers think about different brands in a market. Through brand positioning a company attempts to build a sustainable competitive advantage on product attributes in the consumers mind. Nevertheless, developing a successful positioning strategy is not easyRead MorePositioning and Marketing Mix2743 Words   |  11 Pagesmust take effective measures to deliver and communicate the chosen position to target consumers. Marketing mix efforts should be synchronized to back the positioning strategy. If the company wants to build a position on better quality and service, it must first take necessary action t o deliver that position. Tactical details of the positioning strategy must be worked out to guide the designing of marketing mix-product, price, place and promotion. A company that chooses a â€Å"high-quality position† mustRead MorePositioning: Marketing and Product5093 Words   |  21 PagesBrand Positioning Submitted by: Rishi Dewan PGDM-Marketing (DCP) IMT Ghaziabad Contents Introduction 2 Process of Positioning 3 Strategies of Positioning 5 Positioning by Product attributes 5 Positioning by Quality 5 Positioning by Price 6 Positioning by User Category 7 Positioning by Use 8 Positioning by Competitor 9 Positioning by Celebration 10 Positioning Errors: 11 1. Under-positioning 11 2. Over Positioning 11 3. Confused positioning 12 4Read MoreApple and Marketing Positioning Essay1281 Words   |  6 PagesMarketers manage product positioning by focusing their marketing activities on a positioning strategy. This essay will discuss the multiple factors that are crucial to optimal market positioning. The factors that impact the chosen organisation, Apple, and the chosen product, laptop computers, include market segmentation, market positioning, and the marketing mix, which comprises price, promotion, place and product. Established in the United States of America in April 1976, Apple Inc is a multinationalRead MorePositioning Strategy For The Marketing Program830 Words   |  4 PagesPositioning refers to the act of distinguishing a brand in customer’s minds relative to a competing brand in terms of the benefits and attributes that the brand offers, Keegan and Green (2005). According to Aaker and Shansby (2001), positioning goes far beyond the image that a marketer may want to conjure up in the mind of customers. Positioning can be viewed as a principle asset to a brand strategy, as all elements of the marketing program can potentially affect the effectiveness of any positioningRead MoreMarketing and Positioning Eureka Facts3041 Words   |  13 PagesSegmentation - Targeting – Positioning Eureka Facts, The Smart Marketing Information. 1 SEGMENTATION – TARGETING – POSITIONING BY: JORGE A. RESTREPO President Principal Researcher EurekaFacts LLC The strategic marketing planning process flows from a mission and vision statement to the selection of target markets, and the formulation of specific marketing mix and positioning objective for each product or service the organization will offer. Leading authors like Kotler present the organizationRead MoreMarketing - Positioning Your Brand6468 Words   |  26 PagesClean Edge Razor Splitting Hairs in Product Positioning 1 Index 1. Synopsis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 2. Situation Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 3. Alternative Evaluation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4 4. Position Strategy, with explanation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 5. Marketing mix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 6. Expected Outcomes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8 7. Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 9 - 22 2 Synopsis: BasedRead MoreMarketing Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Essay1388 Words   |  6 Pagesof a targeted market. 3. Discuss what is meant by positioning using two example of a business positioned in differing market sectors Marketing consists of a range of techniques designed to sell a product/service. It focuses on customers and their needs, firms generally undertake research aimed at finding out about their customer’s requirements. A well planned marketing campaign involves a range of methods including; market positioning, Market planning, identification of target markets and

Cleanliness Recycling and Comprehensive National High Free Essays

CLEANLINESS By: Edgardo Eleccion ( GCCNHS) The often quoted saying is â€Å"Cleanliness is next to Godliness†. People are so busy thinking what possible solution to make in order to maintain cleanliness for a worldwide issue. The air, water and soil are not polluted. We will write a custom essay sample on Cleanliness: Recycling and Comprehensive National High or any similar topic only for you Order Now This is the very issue of cleanliness that need an immediate action, a problem to be addressed. Gingoog City Comprehensive National High School ( GCCNHS) community has campaigned on zero waste management program on waste segregation by bio and non-biodegradable scheme. Stakeholders either direct and indirect have been oriented on this scheme on waste segregation. However, students either young or old still can’t follow simple instructions. A kind of system within a person to discipline him to do what is good in saving the environment and saving the generation ahead. United Nations and some of the environmental friendly establishments and organizations have join forces to launch a program for a greener world. The join effort is now part of their mission in their business and organization. However, if one is not performing its task to save this planet, then who else would clean up our mess? We should not wait for others to do the task, today is the right time. Sometimes our mind set reflects our own actions. Do we mind the earth we are living now? Are we ready to pass this world to the next generation after us? What else should we do to give this legacy a worthwhile for them? Symposium, memorandum, policies, bills, laws and rules have been done even in school and communities. Reduction, reforestation, redirection, recycle and reuse policies have been adopted. Still we continue making dirt to this paradise God given gift to us. This world is the package of our existence. This is not ours. We just borrow this. We live this for free, is it not proper to clean the earth we lend form the Maker? Edgardo Eleccion is a secondary teacher of Gingoog City Comprehensive National High School ( GCCNHS) Gingoog City, Philippines. He is a Values Education Teacher. How to cite Cleanliness: Recycling and Comprehensive National High, Papers

Biology Molecule Essay Example For Students

Biology Molecule Essay Unit 1 -man is high 50s to 60% water -distribution in body divided into 3compartments: 1) intracellular 28 litres 2) intercellular/interstitial fluid 11 litres 80% 3) blood plasma 3 litres 20% -women contain less water thanmen -organisms can contain 60-80% water -bacteria have lots of water -fat cellshave little -waters properties result from its structure and molecularinteractions -water is polar -polar covalent bonds and asymmetrical shape giveit opposite charges on opposite sides -electrons spend more time around O givingH a slight positive charge -hydrogen bonds form between the oxygen of onemolecule and the hydrogen of another -cohesion: substance being held together byhydrogen bonds -hydrogen bonds are transient yet enough is always held togetherto give water more structure than almost any other liquid -beads and meniscusformed by cohesion (also helps upward transport of water in plants) -adhesioncounteracts downward pull of gravity -water has greater surface tension thanmo st liquids -surface molecules are hydrogen bonded to molecules below andaround them -surface tension can hinder life (i.e. beading in the alveoli oflungs) -makes water unwettable -surfactants used to counteract this -waterhas a high specific heat which allows it to resist extreme temperature changes-has a high heat of vaporization that causes it to require alot of energy tochange states -when sweating, heat energy is utilized to change states fromliquid to gas, causing a drop in temperature -as a solid water is less densethan as a liquid and will float -charged regions of molecules have an electricalattraction to charged ions -water surrounds ions separating and shielding themfrom one another -polar compounds are generally soluble -charged regions ofwater are attracted to oppositely charged regions of other polar molecules-polar molecules are miscible in other polar liquids -most water moleculesdont dissociate (~ 1/554 million do) -hydrogen atom in hydrogen bond betweenthe two water molecules may shift from the oxygen atom it is covalently bondedto the unshared orbitals of the oxygen that it is hydrogen bonded to -hydrogenion is transferred creating a hydronium ion and leaving a hydroxide ion -thesolvent is water itself -at equilibrium water is not dissociated -at equilibriumin pure water at 25oC = -pH of this solution is 7 (neutral) -high pH= low acidity -acids are substances that increase the relative and removeOH- because it tends to combine with H+ to form water if * , it isacidic and has a pH between 0 and 7 -bases are substances that reduce therelative in a solution -it may increase the -if * , it isbasic and has a pH greater than 7 -buffers are important in the body to keep thepH range between 6 and 8 -pH of blood is between 7.34 and 7.44 -mustnt shiftbelow 7.2 or acidosis will occur -some body zones may have a pH as low as 0.5 oras high as 10 -buffers minimize sudden changes and are a combo of hydrogendonors and hydrogen acceptors -ions are a ccepted when in excess and donated whenin short supply -in biological systems an example is the bicarbonate buffer -inresponse to a rise in pH, the carbonic acid dissociates to form a carbonate ionand a hydrogen proton -if there is a drop, it is reversed (pH up = to right, pHdown = to left) -equilibrium is established but it is always moving to the leftor the right -a balance is the optimum pH -other body buffers include proteinmolecules which donate and accept amino acids to stabilize pH -most of the restof organisms is made up of carbon based compounds like carbs, lipids, proteins,nucleic acids -carbon compounds are known as organic -vitalism is the belief ina life force outside the control of chemical laws -this has been disproved aswater, ammonia, hydrogen and methane have been combined in a lab to form organicsubstances -C+O+H = carbohydrates -C+H+N = amino acids, urea, proteins, lipids-carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks -each has 4 valences wherebonds can form -carbon chains form the skeleton of most organic molecules -maybe straight or branched, long or short, or in closed rings -hydrocarbons containonly hydrogen and carbon -they form when organic matter decomposes andfunctional groups break off leaving a skeleton -hydrocarbon chains, branches,and rings can be modified by other elements which are joined on in a particularmatter -these are components of organic molecules that are often involved inchemical reactions -they replace 1 or more hydrogens in a hydrocarbonCarbohydrates: -sugars and starches -nonsugars: plant starch, animal starch,cellulose, chitin -come from pasta, rice, flour, fruit, syrups -important sourceof energy, can be oxidized to release energy, improves your mood -contain C, H,and O, with generally 2 times as much H as O -sugar names usually end with -ose,and are named depending on the number of carbons in them (e.g. triose, pentose)-6 carbon sugars, hexoses, are most important -general formula is C6H12O6, andin living systems, the state is aqueous -solids exist in chains, and liquids asrings -the molecular formula is the same for different hexoses, but thestructural formula differs -other isomers of glucose can be reorganized by cellsinto alpha glucose, and then oxidized -glucose is the major nutrient for cellsand its carbon skeleton is raw material for the synthesis of other organicsDisaccharides: -2 hexose sugars-most common are: sucrose, lactose and maltose-glucose + glucose = maltose + water -glucose + fructose = sucrose + water-glucose + galactose = lactose + water -this process is known as condensation ordehydration synthesis -synthesis of disaccharides doesnt happen in the humanbody, but usually they are eaten and digested, through a process known ashydrolysis or disaccharidases Polysaccharides: -these are macromolecules thatare made by condensation when monosaccharides are joined -general molecularformula isC6H12O5 -common polysaccharides are amylose, amylopectin (plantstarch), glycogen ( animal starch), cellulose (cell wall material), chitin(leathery covering of invertebrates) -plants use glucose to grow, and extra isstored in the roots in a soluble form which is then reactivated in the spring this reactivates the growing process year after year -animal starch is stored inspecial cells (average person has a 24 hour supply) and can readily be convertedinto glucose for use -cellulose and chitin are structural carbohydrates -amyloseis formed when glucose molecules join in a 1-4 linkage pattern -first carbon ofone glucose links to the fourth carbon of another -this is a covalent bond or aglycosiolic link -bond is angular and forms a spiral called an alpha helix -ifit branches, amylopectin is formed -cellulose is a 1-4 linkage of beta glucose-this creates a straight strand and not a helix -these bonds are rigid andrequire special enzymes (cellulase) to break them -the position of the betaglucose molecules alternates Lipids: -humans rarely eat pure lipids -cellmembranes a re primarily lipid and lipids can easily enter cells, carrying afoods flavor with them -a diet should have less than 30% fat, 55-65% carbs,and 10-15% protein -lipids are important as a source of energy, insulation(adipose tissue), cushions for the internal organs, as a lubricant, as anemulsifying agent (cholesterol in bile), as a structural component of cells (1/6of brain is fat), cholesterol as a precursor molecule for vitamin D, cortisone,testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen -lipids are simplest biologicalmolecules and are composed mostly of C, H and a few Os -they are energy richbecause of the high C to H ratio -fat consists of a glycerol molecule connectedby ester bonds to a 3 fatty acid molecule (this is a tryglyceride) -if the bondsbetween the carbons are single bonds, the fatty acid is saturated (fat formed isa saturate) -if they have multiple bonds, it is an unsaturated fat -apolysaturate is more than one fatty acid held together by single bonds -multiplebonds can be bro ken and extra hydrogens added through hydrogenation -shortchained fats of unsaturated fatty acids are soft with a low b.p. -long chainedfats of saturated fatty acids are harder with a high b.p. -length of chainsaffects boiling point the most -to make an oil from a solid, you musthydrogenate it Steroids: -saturated fatty acids can be converted to the steroidcholesterol -triglycerides are monitored more closely in the blood thancholesterol -the amount of saturates converted to cholesterol is genetic-abnormal genes can cause excessive production (1 gene = severe heart disease, 2= shortened life span) -liver produces cholesterol -steroids have a 5 ring shape-examples are androgens, estrogens, and cortisone Proteins: -there are 20 aminoacids, 8 of which are essential and can be converted into any of the other 12-protein rich foods are digested into amino acids and the body absorbs them tomake their own proteins -liver cells convert them into absent aminos =transaminofication -proteins ar e synthesized on ribosomes in the cytoplasms ofcells or on polysomes (ribosome chains0 -DNA codes proteins by copying its infoonto a shorter strand known as mRNA (m = a message to synthesize a protein) -themessage is received and a protein is synthesized -for synthesis all 20 arerequired -number, sequence and type of amino acids making up the protein is theprimary structure this is determined by DNA -secondary structure is thecoiling or pleating of amino acid chains, caused by rigid peptide bonds whichare bent by strong intermolecular attraction between hydrogens and oxygens ofevery fourth amino this results in a regular, repeating twist or an alphahelix-chains lie parallel to one another and form hydrogen bonds between themselves this is a beta sheet but is not very common -secondary structure is determinedby intermolecular bonds -tertiary structure refers to the folds in the coiledchain -this is called by a thiol called cysteine this can form a bridge whenit meets another cyste ine -when 2 cysteines meet, a disulfide link is formed-insulin has 6 cysteine amino acids and forms 3 bridges and a slightly globularprotein -the more cysteine amino acids there are, the more folds or joints thatresult and the more globular the protein is -globular proteins are thedoers that function because they have a particular shape due to thecysteine-cysteine sulfur bridges -some proteins may be a bunch of polypeptidechains close together -this is quaternary structure, which very few proteinshave -all proteins have a primary and secondary structure, but few have atertiary structure, and even fewer a quaternary -proteins can be 50-50,000 aminoacids long -amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, a covalent bond between theC of one amino acid and the N of a neighbour -a polypeptide chain is a string ofaminos not long enough to be a protein -amino acids are so named because oftheir two functional groups, the amine group and the carboxylic acid groupNucleic Acids: -all living cells contain DNA and RNA -these carry instructionsfor making proteins and specify the sequence in which amino acids should belinked together -DNA and RNA are polynucleotides, polymers of nucleotides-nucleotides consist of a phosphate group + a pentose + a nitrogenous base -theycan be linked together by condensation to form a polynucleotide -if a nucleotidecontains ribose, it becomes Ribo Nucleic Acid -these are always just a singlestrand, but may be looped into 3 dimensional shapes -if the nucleotide containsdeoxyribose, Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid results -DNA molecules are far longer thanRNA molecules, and can never contain Uracil -4 possible bases are adenine,guanine, cytosine, and thymine -DNA molecules contain two polynucleotidestrands, held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases -hydrogen bonds canonly be formed between specific base pairs: Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine-a sense strand is a sequence of bases that tells the order in which to stringtogether the amino acids -a le ngth of DNA coding the sequence for a polypeptideis called a gene -three bases, a codon, specify an amino acid -there are 64possible arrangements of bases in a codon -polypeptides are made when 2 strandsof DNA split up and an RNA molecule builds up against the sense strand -basesequence of RNA must match that of the DNA molecule -a complete RNA moleculethen peels off and travels to the location where polypeptides are made -sequenceof bases on a DNA molecule is the same for a human or a bacteria OtherNucleotides: -a slightly different version of one of the nucleotides that formsRNA is ATP -ATP contains ribose, adenine and 3 phosphate groups instead of 1-phosphate groups may be lost one at a time to make ADP (di) or AMP (mono) -allliving cells make ATP as an energy currency, it is produced constantly -ATPmolecules usually last less than a minute before being broken down -~40 kg isproduced in a day -if a cell needs energy, it hydrolyses ATP and releases energyin small packets NAD: -con tains ribose sugar, adenine and 2 nucleotides -onenucleotide does not contain any of the 5 bases, but instead a nicotinamide ring-they can accept hydrogens and become NADH -hydrogens are accepted or passed onduring respiration or photosynthesis. The Importance of a Formal Education Essay